[45], Using data from longitudinal studies conducted by the U.S. Department of Education, researchers Judy Goldberg Dey and Catherine Hill analyzed some 9,000 college graduates from 1992–93 and more than 10,000 from 1999–2000. The report Beyond Bias and Barriers says that extensive previous research showed a pattern of unconscious but pervasive bias, "arbitrary and subjective" evaluation processes and a work environment in which "anyone lacking the work and family support traditionally provided by a 'wife' is at a serious disadvantage. AAUW Report: The Simple Truth about the Gender Pay Gap. The gender wage gap, as measured by women’s share of men’s hourly wages at the median, ranges from 74.8 percent (in Wyoming) to 92.9 percent (in … Job attributes relating to interpersonal relationships do not seem to affect wages, nor do the attributes of physically demanding or dangerous jobs. The gender pay gap is caused by much more than men and women being paid differently for the same jobs. [39], Using Current Population Survey (CPS) data for 1979 and 1995 and controlling for education, experience, personal characteristics, parental status, city and region, occupation, industry, government employment, and part-time status, Yale University economics professor Joseph G. Altonji and the United States Secretary of Commerce Rebecca M. Blank found that only about 27% of the gender wage gap in each year is explained by differences in such characteristics. In 2018, women earned 85% of what men earned, according to a Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers in the United States.
[155], Perceptions of wage entitlement differ between women and men such that men are more likely to feel worthy of higher pay[156][157][158][159][160][161][162] while women's sense of wage entitlement is depressed. [66] Economists Blau and Kahn stated that women's pay compared to men's had improved because of a decrease in occupational segregation. found widely shared cultural beliefs that men are more socially valued and more competent than women at most things, as well as specific assumptions that men are better at some particular tasks (e.g., math, mechanical tasks) while women are better at others (e.g., nurturing tasks). [35], Any given raw wage gap can be dissected into an explained part, due to differences in characteristics such as education, hours worked, work experience, and occupation, and/or an unexplained part, which is typically attributed to discrimination,[36] differences not controlled for, individual choices, or a greater value placed on fringe benefits. [10], Women's median yearly earnings (which is used by the Census Bureau to calculate its gap includes bonuses, while the Bureau of Labor Statistics uses weekly earnings which does not[11]) relative to men's rose rapidly from 1980 to 1990 (from 60.2% to 71.6%), and less rapidly from 1990 to 2000 (from 71.6% to 73.7%), from 2000 to 2009 (from 73.7% to 77.0%),[12] and from 2009 to 2018 (from 77.0% to 81.1%). [138], Similarly, Fuegen et al. [88][89] Similarly, studies suggest that members of high-status groups are more likely to receive favorable evaluations about their competence, normality, and legitimacy. Data measure usual hourly and weekly earnings of wage and salary workers 25 years and …
According to the JPIMedia Data Unit, the gender pay gap in Scotland in 2020 is 8.3 percent, down from 10.9 percent in 2019. Ariane Hegewisch, Claudia Williams, and Amber Henderson. How does gender play a role in the earnings gap? Childless Peers. In the whole of the UK, the gender pay gap was 11.5 percent in 2020, down from 13 percent in 2019. [108] However, this studies results have been met with skepticism from other researchers, since it contradicts other studies on the issue. One-in-four employed women said they have earned less than a man who was doing the same job; just 5% of men said they have earned less than a woman doing the same job. [13] The national female-to-male earnings ratio was 81.9%. That includes mothers who are more likely to have had their work disrupted due to unequal caring roles and a lack of childcare facilities. "[62], However, numerous studies indicate that variables such as hours worked account for only part of the gender pay gap and that the pay gap shrinks but does not disappear after controlling for many human capital variables known to affect pay. ", "Strengthening the Middle Class: Ensuring Equal Pay for Women", "Status Processes and Mental Ability Test Scores", "Sex Discrimination in Restaurant Hiring: An Audit Study", "Cracking the glass ceiling: overcoming isolation and alienation", "In patient satisfaction scores, what role does bias play? The gender pay gap in the United States is the ratio of female-to-male median or average (depending on the source) yearly earnings among full-time, year-round workers.. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. [144] Some studies have suggested this premium is pronounced in the working lives of men after becoming fathers.
"[74], However, studies in 1990 by Jerry A. Jacobs and Ronnie Steinberg, as well as Jennifer Glass separately, found that male-dominated jobs actually have more flexibility and autonomy than female-dominated jobs, thus allowing a person, for example, to more easily leave work to tend to a sick child.
by measurable factors such as educational attainment, occupational segregation and work experience. However, there is still a long way to go which is made clear by Equal Pay Day each year. ", "Catalyst: Women MBAs Lag Behind Men in Jobs, Pay, Promotions. [179], Riley and Babcock found that women are penalized when they try to negotiate starting salaries. Therefore, closing the pay gap by raising women's wages would have a stimulus effect that would grow the U.S. economy by at least 3% to 4%.
With controls for these variables in place, the data showed that women earned, on average, 20% less than men during the entire period 1983 to 2000. The gender pay gap is still a very real problem in Scotland. ", "The costs of asking for a higher salary. In a subsequent audit study, Correll et al. ", "A Study on the Status of Women Faculty in Science at MIT. [186] Women currently make up 70 percent of Medicaid recipients and 80 percent of welfare recipients. This may also contribute to gender differences in pay. [87], Several authors suggest that members of low-status groups are subject to negative stereotypes and attributes concerning their work-related competences. Note: This is an update of a post originally published April 8, 2014. Contraception and the Gender Gap in Wages", "The Motherhood Penalty: Working Moms Face Pay Gap Vs. A 2010 research review by the majority staff of the United States Congress Joint Economic Committee reported that studies have consistently found unexplained pay differences even after controlling for measurable factors that are assumed to influence earnings – suggestive of unknown/unmeasurable contributing factors of which gender discrimination may be one. Even though women have increased their presence in higher-paying jobs traditionally dominated by men, such as professional and managerial positions, women as a whole continue to be overrepresented in lower-paying occupations. "[77], Based on data from the 1980s, economists Blau and Kahn and Wood et al. ", "No, It's Not Your Imagination; We're Biased Against Women.
For example, older women's Social Security benefits are 71% of older men's benefits ($11,057 for women versus $15,557 for men in 2009). The researchers controlled for "work patterns," including years of work experience, education, and hours of work per year, as well as differences in industry, occupation, race, marital status, and job tenure. "The portion of the pay gap that remains unexplained after all other factors are taken into account is 5 percent one year after graduation and 12 percent 10 years after graduation. Studies by Michael Conway et al., David Wagner and Joseph Berger, John Williams and Deborah Best, and Susan Fiske et al. They found that the average wage rate of females was only 87.4% of the average wage rate of males; whereas, when earnings were measured by their index of total compensation (including fringe benefits), the average value of the index for females was 96.4% of the average value for males. [49], A study by John McDowell, Larry Singell and James Ziliak investigated faculty promotion on the economics profession and found that, controlling for quality of PhD training, publishing productivity, major field of specialization, current placement in a distinguished department, age and post-PhD experience, female economists were still significantly less likely to be promoted from assistant to associate and from associate to full professor—although there was also some evidence that women's promotion opportunities from associate to full professor improved in the 1980s.
[155], Perceptions of wage entitlement differ between women and men such that men are more likely to feel worthy of higher pay[156][157][158][159][160][161][162] while women's sense of wage entitlement is depressed. [66] Economists Blau and Kahn stated that women's pay compared to men's had improved because of a decrease in occupational segregation. found widely shared cultural beliefs that men are more socially valued and more competent than women at most things, as well as specific assumptions that men are better at some particular tasks (e.g., math, mechanical tasks) while women are better at others (e.g., nurturing tasks). [35], Any given raw wage gap can be dissected into an explained part, due to differences in characteristics such as education, hours worked, work experience, and occupation, and/or an unexplained part, which is typically attributed to discrimination,[36] differences not controlled for, individual choices, or a greater value placed on fringe benefits. [10], Women's median yearly earnings (which is used by the Census Bureau to calculate its gap includes bonuses, while the Bureau of Labor Statistics uses weekly earnings which does not[11]) relative to men's rose rapidly from 1980 to 1990 (from 60.2% to 71.6%), and less rapidly from 1990 to 2000 (from 71.6% to 73.7%), from 2000 to 2009 (from 73.7% to 77.0%),[12] and from 2009 to 2018 (from 77.0% to 81.1%). [138], Similarly, Fuegen et al. [88][89] Similarly, studies suggest that members of high-status groups are more likely to receive favorable evaluations about their competence, normality, and legitimacy. Data measure usual hourly and weekly earnings of wage and salary workers 25 years and …
According to the JPIMedia Data Unit, the gender pay gap in Scotland in 2020 is 8.3 percent, down from 10.9 percent in 2019. Ariane Hegewisch, Claudia Williams, and Amber Henderson. How does gender play a role in the earnings gap? Childless Peers. In the whole of the UK, the gender pay gap was 11.5 percent in 2020, down from 13 percent in 2019. [108] However, this studies results have been met with skepticism from other researchers, since it contradicts other studies on the issue. One-in-four employed women said they have earned less than a man who was doing the same job; just 5% of men said they have earned less than a woman doing the same job. [13] The national female-to-male earnings ratio was 81.9%. That includes mothers who are more likely to have had their work disrupted due to unequal caring roles and a lack of childcare facilities. "[62], However, numerous studies indicate that variables such as hours worked account for only part of the gender pay gap and that the pay gap shrinks but does not disappear after controlling for many human capital variables known to affect pay. ", "Strengthening the Middle Class: Ensuring Equal Pay for Women", "Status Processes and Mental Ability Test Scores", "Sex Discrimination in Restaurant Hiring: An Audit Study", "Cracking the glass ceiling: overcoming isolation and alienation", "In patient satisfaction scores, what role does bias play? The gender pay gap in the United States is the ratio of female-to-male median or average (depending on the source) yearly earnings among full-time, year-round workers.. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. [144] Some studies have suggested this premium is pronounced in the working lives of men after becoming fathers.
"[74], However, studies in 1990 by Jerry A. Jacobs and Ronnie Steinberg, as well as Jennifer Glass separately, found that male-dominated jobs actually have more flexibility and autonomy than female-dominated jobs, thus allowing a person, for example, to more easily leave work to tend to a sick child.
by measurable factors such as educational attainment, occupational segregation and work experience. However, there is still a long way to go which is made clear by Equal Pay Day each year. ", "Catalyst: Women MBAs Lag Behind Men in Jobs, Pay, Promotions. [179], Riley and Babcock found that women are penalized when they try to negotiate starting salaries. Therefore, closing the pay gap by raising women's wages would have a stimulus effect that would grow the U.S. economy by at least 3% to 4%.
With controls for these variables in place, the data showed that women earned, on average, 20% less than men during the entire period 1983 to 2000. The gender pay gap is still a very real problem in Scotland. ", "The costs of asking for a higher salary. In a subsequent audit study, Correll et al. ", "A Study on the Status of Women Faculty in Science at MIT. [186] Women currently make up 70 percent of Medicaid recipients and 80 percent of welfare recipients. This may also contribute to gender differences in pay. [87], Several authors suggest that members of low-status groups are subject to negative stereotypes and attributes concerning their work-related competences. Note: This is an update of a post originally published April 8, 2014. Contraception and the Gender Gap in Wages", "The Motherhood Penalty: Working Moms Face Pay Gap Vs. A 2010 research review by the majority staff of the United States Congress Joint Economic Committee reported that studies have consistently found unexplained pay differences even after controlling for measurable factors that are assumed to influence earnings – suggestive of unknown/unmeasurable contributing factors of which gender discrimination may be one. Even though women have increased their presence in higher-paying jobs traditionally dominated by men, such as professional and managerial positions, women as a whole continue to be overrepresented in lower-paying occupations. "[77], Based on data from the 1980s, economists Blau and Kahn and Wood et al. ", "No, It's Not Your Imagination; We're Biased Against Women.
For example, older women's Social Security benefits are 71% of older men's benefits ($11,057 for women versus $15,557 for men in 2009). The researchers controlled for "work patterns," including years of work experience, education, and hours of work per year, as well as differences in industry, occupation, race, marital status, and job tenure. "The portion of the pay gap that remains unexplained after all other factors are taken into account is 5 percent one year after graduation and 12 percent 10 years after graduation. Studies by Michael Conway et al., David Wagner and Joseph Berger, John Williams and Deborah Best, and Susan Fiske et al. They found that the average wage rate of females was only 87.4% of the average wage rate of males; whereas, when earnings were measured by their index of total compensation (including fringe benefits), the average value of the index for females was 96.4% of the average value for males. [49], A study by John McDowell, Larry Singell and James Ziliak investigated faculty promotion on the economics profession and found that, controlling for quality of PhD training, publishing productivity, major field of specialization, current placement in a distinguished department, age and post-PhD experience, female economists were still significantly less likely to be promoted from assistant to associate and from associate to full professor—although there was also some evidence that women's promotion opportunities from associate to full professor improved in the 1980s.